Sugarproof Science

Here we provide the details and links to the research studies cited in the book organized by Chapter. For each citation, the text in bold refers to the relevant text from the Chapter

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61. Another factor that makes sugar consumption difficult to shake is that there is a direct link between the amount of sugar consumed and the number of dopamine receptors that are activated in the brain

Spangler, R, Wittkowski, KM, Goddard, NL, Avena, NM, Hoebel, BG, and Leibowitz, SF. “Opiate-like effects of sugar on gene expression in reward areas of the rat brain”. Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 2004. 124(2): p. 134-42.

62. In a classic animal study, researchers showed that lab rats prefer sugar and artificial sweeteners over cocaine

Lenoir, M, Serre, F, Cantin, L, and Ahmed, SH. “Intense sweetness surpasses cocaine reward”. PLoS One, 2007. 2(8): p. e698.

63. One study looked at the differences in how rats responded to Oreo cookies in particular versus cocaine or morphine

Levy, A, Salamon, A, Tucci, M, Limebeer, CL, Parker, LA, and Leri, F. “Co-sensitivity to the incentive properties of palatable food and cocaine in rats; implications for co-morbid addictions”. Addict Biol, 2013. 18(5): p. 763-73.

64. The students who had the Sprite Zero with aspartame were nearly three times more likely to choose the M&M’s than the students who were given either of the other two beverages

Hill, SE, Prokosch, ML, Morin, A, and Rodeheffer, CD. “The effect of non-caloric sweeteners on cognition, choice, and post-consumption satisfaction”. Appetite, 2014. 83: p. 82-8.

65. The central reward system of the brain begins to develop as early as twelve weeks of gestation, and by twenty weeks, receptors for dopamine and opioids can be detected

Gugusheff, JR, Ong, ZY, and Muhlhausler, BS. “The early origins of food preferences: targeting the critical windows of development”. FASEB J, 2015. 29(2): p. 365-73.

66. Since glucose can cross the placenta

Holmberg, NG, Kaplan, B, Karvonen, MJ, Lind, J, and Malm, M. “Permeability of human placenta to glucose, fructose, and xylose”. Acta Physiol Scand, 1956. 36(4): p. 291-9.

67. The innate preference for sweetness that babies are born with could become stronger based on the sugars that moms eat even before birth

Ventura, AK and Worobey, J. “Early influences on the development of food preferences”. Curr Biol, 2013. 23(9): p. R401-8.

68. While we don’t yet have evidence from studies in humans, several animal studies support this idea and also show that LCS have a similar effect

Zhang, GH, Chen, ML, Liu, SS, Zhan, YH, Quan, Y, Qin, YM, and Deng, SP. “Effects of mother's dietary exposure to acesulfame-K in Pregnancy or lactation on the adult offspring's sweet preference”. Chem Senses, 2011. 36(9): p. 763-70.

69. While we don’t yet have evidence from studies in humans, several animal studies support this idea and also show that LCS have a similar effect

von Poser Toigo, E, Huffell, AP, Mota, CS, Bertolini, D, Pettenuzzo, LF, and Dalmaz, C. “Metabolic and feeding behavior alterations provoked by prenatal exposure to aspartame”. Appetite, 2015. 87: p. 168-74.

70. The combination of carbohydrates (including sugar) and fat produce an even stronger feeling of pleasure and sense of reward together than either of them on their own

DiFeliceantonio, AG, Coppin, G, Rigoux, L, Edwin Thanarajah, S, Dagher, A, Tittgemeyer, M, and Small, DM. “Supra-Additive Effects of Combining Fat and Carbohydrate on Food Reward”. Cell Metab, 2018. 28(1): p. 33-44 e3.

71. To put it bluntly, new research shows that too much sugar shrinks your brain

Pase, MP, Himali, JJ, Jacques, PF, DeCarli, C, Satizabal, CL, Aparicio, H, Vasan, RS, Beiser, AS, and Seshadri, S. “Sugary beverage intake and preclinical Alzheimer's disease in the community”. Alzheimers Dement, 2017. 13(9): p. 955-964.

72. At first, this is likely to boost your brain function

Bellisle, F. “Effects of diet on behaviour and cognition in children”. Br J Nutr, 2004. 92 Suppl 2: p. S227-32.

73. Research shows that right after you drink a sugary beverage, you are better able to complete tasks that involve processing information, resolving conflict, and recalling words

Benton, D, Owens, DS, and Parker, PY. “Blood glucose influences memory and attention in young adults”. Neuropsychologia, 1994. 32(5): p. 595-607.

74. Research shows that right after you drink a sugary beverage, you are better able to complete tasks that involve processing information, resolving conflict, and recalling words

Owens, DS and Benton, D. “The impact of raising blood glucose on reaction times”. Neuropsychobiology, 1994. 30(2-3): p. 106-13.

75. But your mental performance can drop, too

Owens, DS, Parker, PY, and Benton, D. “Blood glucose and subjective energy following cognitive demand”. Physiol Behav, 1997. 62(3): p. 471-8.

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