Sugarproof Science

Here we provide the details and links to the research studies cited in the book organized by Chapter. For each citation, the text in bold refers to the relevant text from the Chapter

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106. Although sugar-induced tooth decay can occur at any age, infants and children are much more vulnerable for a couple of reasons

Wagner, Y and Heinrich-Weltzien, R. “Risk factors for dental problems: Recommendations for oral health in infancy”. Early Hum Dev, 2017. 114: p. 16-21.

107. Kids who tested positive for fructose malabsorption were advised to go on a low-fructose diet and after that, 77 percent had improvement in symptoms

Escobar, MA, Jr., Lustig, D, Pflugeisen, BM, Amoroso, PJ, Sherif, D, Saeed, R, Shamdeen, S, Tuider, J, and Abdullah, B. “Fructose intolerance/malabsorption and recurrent abdominal pain in children”. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr, 2014. 58(4): p. 498-501.

108. Naturally, the rats with access to the sugar water chose to drink it—and Scott found that this group had major disruptions to their microbiome, with more harmful bacteria present

Noble, EE, Hsu, TM, Jones, RB, Fodor, AA, Goran, MI, and Kanoski, SE. “Early-Life Sugar Consumption Affects the Rat Microbiome Independently of Obesity”. J Nutr, 2017. 147(1): p. 20-28.

109. Fructose in particular has been linked to leaky gut

Kavanagh, K, Wylie, AT, Tucker, KL, Hamp, TJ, Gharaibeh, RZ, Fodor, AA, and Cullen, JM. “Dietary fructose induces endotoxemia and hepatic injury in calorically controlled primates”. Am J Clin Nutr, 2013. 98(2): p. 349-57.

110. Leaky gut has been shown to be a factor contributing to diseases like type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease

Burcelin, R, Serino, M, Chabo, C, Garidou, L, Pomie, C, Courtney, M, Amar, J, and Bouloumie, A. “Metagenome and metabolism: the tissue microbiota hypothesis”. Diabetes Obes Metab, 2013. 15 Suppl 3: p. 61-70.

111. Which is why fructose has been referred to as “alcohol without the buzz”

Lustig, RH. “Fructose: it's "alcohol without the buzz"”. Adv Nutr, 2013. 4(2): p. 226-35.

112. However, a study in 2006 got around this problem by examining the livers from hundreds of children who had died of various accidental causes and found that 13 percent of all children met the clinical criteria for fatty liver

Schwimmer, JB, Deutsch, R, Kahen, T, Lavine, JE, Stanley, C, and Behling, C. “Prevalence of fatty liver in children and adolescents”. Pediatrics, 2006. 118(4): p. 1388-93.

113. Between the early 1990s to 2010, a period of less than twenty years, cases of suspected fatty liver disease in children more than doubled, from 4 percent to 11 percent

Welsh, JA, Karpen, S, and Vos, MB. “Increasing prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease among United States adolescents, 1988-1994 to 2007-2010”. J Pediatr, 2013. 162(3): p. 496-500 e1.

114. After eight weeks, the low-sugar group saw success, with their liver fat reduced from an average of 25 percent of liver mass to 17 percent

Schwimmer, JB, Ugalde-Nicalo, P, Welsh, JA, Angeles, JE, Cordero, M, Harlow, KE, Alazraki, A, Durelle, J, Knight-Scott, J, Newton, KP, Cleeton, R, Knott, C, Konomi, J, Middleton, MS, Travers, C, Sirlin, CB, Hernandez, A, Sekkarie, A, McCracken, C, and Vos, MB. “Effect of a Low Free Sugar Diet vs Usual Diet on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Adolescent Boys: A Randomized Clinical Trial”. JAMA, 2019. 321(3): p. 256-265.

115. In a study performed on primates, liver fat was almost five times higher in offspring born to mothers who were fed a high-fat/ high-sugar diet during pregnancy

McCurdy, CE, Bishop, JM, Williams, SM, Grayson, BE, Smith, MS, Friedman, JE, and Grove, KL. “Maternal high-fat diet triggers lipotoxicity in the fetal livers of nonhuman primates”. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 2009. 119(2): p. 323-335.

116. In one study, babies born to mothers who were overweight had liver fat that was 68 percent higher than babies born to mothers who were normal weight

Brumbaugh, DE, Tearse, P, Cree-Green, M, Fenton, LZ, Brown, M, Scherzinger, A, Reynolds, R, Alston, M, Hoffman, C, Pan, Z, Friedman, JE, and Barbour, LA. “Intrahepatic fat is increased in the neonatal offspring of obese women with gestational diabetes”. J Pediatr, 2013. 162(5): p. 930-6 e1.

117. A large study in 2008 found that the gene is associated with having twice as much fat in the liver

Romeo, S, Kozlitina, J, Xing, C, Pertsemlidis, A, Cox, D, Pennacchio, LA, Boerwinkle, E, Cohen, JC, and Hobbs, HH. “Genetic variation in PNPLA3 confers susceptibility to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease”. Nat Genet, 2008. 40(12): p. 1461-5.

118. In our studies in Hispanic children, we have found that the effect of this gene on liver fat was manifested as young as eight years of age

Goran, MI, Walker, R, Le, KA, Mahurkar, S, Vikman, S, Davis, JN, Spruijt-Metz, D, Weigensberg, MJ, and Allayee, H. “Effects of PNPLA3 on liver fat and metabolic profile in Hispanic children and adolescents”. Diabetes, 2010. 59(12): p. 3127-30.

119. Consuming high amounts of sugar exacerbated the effect of the PNPLA3 gene on liver fat

Davis, JN, Le, KA, Walker, RW, Vikman, S, Spruijt-Metz, D, Weigensberg, MJ, Allayee, H, and Goran, MI. “Increased hepatic fat in overweight Hispanic youth influenced by interaction between genetic variation in PNPLA3 and high dietary carbohydrate and sugar consumption”. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 2010. 92(6): p. 1522-7.

120. If your family is Hispanic, you may want to pay extra attention to your children’s risk for liver disease

Goran, MI and Ventura, EE. “Genetic predisposition and increasing dietary fructose exposure: the perfect storm for fatty liver disease in Hispanics in the U.S”. Dig Liver Dis, 2012. 44(9): p. 711-3.

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